Everything below concerns ACTH analog. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-04-30. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Pharmacokinetic accounts emphasize rapid breakdown. After intravenous dosing the intact peptide disappears from blood within minutes, and nasal delivery produces low but measurable concentrations. Metabolites rather than the parent molecule may account for part of the observed activity, although the relative contribution is unresolved. Dosing in the literature varies widely and no optimal schedule has been agreed. These gaps are regularly cited as a reason the findings have not produced broad clinical adoption beyond the original research setting.
Proposed mechanisms center on neurotrophic signaling rather than on classical melanocortin receptor activation. Rodent experiments have reported shifts in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor after administration, together with changes in the associated receptor systems. Several authors argue that the peptide acts largely through its degradation products and their interaction with peptidergic pathways, but this remains a hypothesis rather than a settled finding. No single molecular target has been identified in a way that the field broadly accepts.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary research models | Rodent studies | Largest share of published data |
| Reported markers | BDNF and NGF expression | Measured mainly in animal tissue |
| Common administration | Intranasal | Matches the registered formulation |
| Blood residence time | Minutes | Rapid enzymatic degradation |
| Evidence quality | Small trials, limited replication | Noted repeatedly in reviews |
Common degradation pathways include oxidation of the methionine side chain, hydrolysis of the peptide backbone, and aggregation under unfavourable pH or concentration. Stability studies typically monitor the main peak by chromatography and report total related substances as a percentage. Because no official monograph exists, acceptance criteria vary between laboratories, and reported purity values are not directly comparable across suppliers. Analysts therefore document the method, column, and detection wavelength alongside each result, and open questions remain about how much biological activity the oxidised forms retain.
Solid semax is typically supplied as a lyophilised powder that is hygroscopic and sensitive to moisture, light, and repeated temperature cycling. Long-term storage of the dry peptide is generally recommended at approximately -20 degrees Celsius, while shorter working periods may use refrigeration at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius. Vials should remain tightly closed and desiccated when brought to room temperature, because condensation can damage the material before it is weighed. Dividing a batch into aliquots is preferable to thawing one container repeatedly.
Dissolution is normally performed in water, phosphate-buffered saline, or normal saline, since the peptide is freely soluble in aqueous media and is rarely handled with strong organic solvents. Solution pH should be kept near neutral, because extreme acidity or alkalinity accelerates backbone hydrolysis and encourages oxidation of the methionine side chain. Once dissolved, the material is less stable than the dry powder and is commonly divided into single-use portions and frozen. Buffers containing primary amines, such as Tris, are often avoided because of possible side reactions.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Practical handling follows from those properties. Bulk material is best divided into single-use portions soon after receipt, because each thaw exposes the whole container to moisture and temperature cycling. Vials should be allowed to reach room temperature before opening to prevent condensation on the powder. Low-binding plasticware reduces loss of dilute solutions, and sterile filtration is used when a preparation must remain free of microbial growth. Records of batch number, reconstitution date and storage history are what allow a later analytical result to be interpreted meaningfully.
Identity and purity of Semax are established mainly by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The chromatographic trace gives a purity estimate as a percentage of total peak area, while electrospray or matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization confirms the molecular mass against the calculated value. Amino acid analysis and sequence-specific fragmentation provide further confirmation when a supplier's chain of custody is unclear. Vendors frequently quote a purity figure without stating the detection wavelength or the integration method, which limits how far one number can be compared with another.
Stability depends heavily on physical state. Lyophilized powder held dry, cold and dark retains its content over long periods, whereas dissolved peptide begins to change within days at room temperature. The most cited degradation route is oxidation of the methionine residue, which converts the peptide to a sulfoxide form that elutes differently on chromatography. Hydrolysis of amide bonds and adsorption onto container walls contribute smaller losses. Buffers that exclude oxygen from the headspace slow the oxidation pathway, but no single condition prevents all change indefinitely.
=== Ukraine === A people's deputy of Ukraine (Ukrainian: народний депутат України, narodnyi deputat Ukrayiny) is a member of parliament or legislator elected by a popular vote to the Verkhovna Rada (the unicameral parliament of Ukraine). Often people's deputies of Ukraine are referred to simply as deputies. The main statutes that define the order of elections, rights and duties of the people's deputies of Ukraine are outlined in Articles 76–81 of the Constitution of Ukraine. There are 450 people's deputies of Ukraine who are elected based on the general, equal and direct electoral right for five years. The deputies may be appointed to various parliamentary positions such as the chairperson (speaker) of parliament, a head of a committee or a parliamentary faction, etc. Upon its appointment, to the office, each people's deputy of Ukraine receives a deputy mandate. People's deputies that run for parliament as self-nominated candidates can join factions if they wish.
=== Lower blepharoplasty === Lower blepharoplasty addresses changes in the lower eyelid, including fat protrusion, skin laxity, and alterations of the eyelid–cheek contour. Two primary approaches are used.
== Research == While cases of zolpidem improving aphasia in people with stroke have been described, use for this purpose has unclear benefits. Zolpidem has also been studied in persistent vegetative states with unclear effect. A 2017 systematic review concluded that while there is preliminary evidence of benefit for treating disorders of movement and consciousness other than insomnia (including Parkinson's disease), more research is needed. Animal studies in FDA files for zolpidem showed a dose dependent increase in some types of tumors, although the studies were too small to reach statistical significance. Some observational epidemiological studies have found a correlation between use of benzodiazepines and certain hypnotics including zolpidem and an increased risk of getting cancer, but others have found no correlation; a 2017 meta-analysis of such studies found a correlation, stating that use of hypnotics was associated with a 29% increased risk of cancer, and that "zolpidem use showed the strongest risk of cancer" with an estimated 34% increased risk, but noted that the results were tentative because some of the studies failed to control for confounders like cigarette smoking and alcohol use, and some of the studies analyzed were case–controls, which are more prone to some forms of bias. Similarly, a meta-analysis of benzodiazepine drugs also shows their use is associated with increased risk of cancer.
Paul, Gregory S. (2002). Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of Flight in Dinosaurs and Birds. Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6763-7. LCCN 2001000242. OCLC 1088130487.. Sternberg, Charles Mortram (1966) [Original edition published by E. Cloutier, printer to the King, 1946]. Canadian Dinosaurs. Geological Series. Vol. 54 (2nd ed.). Ottawa: National Museum of Canada. LCCN gs46000214. OCLC 1032865683. Stewart, Tabori & Chang (1997). The Humongous Book of Dinosaurs. New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang. ISBN 978-1-55670-596-0. LCCN 97000398. OCLC 1037269801. University of Southampton (September 29, 2021). "Two New Species of Large Predatory Dinosaur with Crocodile-Like Skulls Discovered on Isle of Wight". SciTechDaily. Zhou, Zhonghe (October 2004). "The origin and early evolution of birds: discoveries, disputes, and perspectives from fossil evidence" (PDF). Naturwissenschaften. 91 (10). Berlin: Springer Science+Business Media: 455–471. Bibcode:2004NW.....91..455Z. doi:10.1007/s00114-004-0570-4. ISSN 0028-1042. PMID 15365634. S2CID 3329625. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 21, 2011. Retrieved November 6, 2019.
Mass spectrometry has both qualitative and quantitative uses. These include identifying unknown compounds, determining the isotopic composition of elements in a molecule, and determining the structure of a compound by observing its fragmentation. Other uses include quantifying the amount of a compound in a sample or studying the fundamentals of gas phase ion chemistry (the chemistry of ions and neutrals in a vacuum). MS is now commonly used in analytical laboratories that study physical, chemical, or biological properties of a great variety of compounds. Quantification can be relative (analyzed relative to a reference sample) or absolute (analyzed using a standard curve method). As an analytical technique it possesses distinct advantages such as: Increased sensitivity over most other analytical techniques because the analyzer, as a mass-charge filter, reduces background interference, Excellent specificity from characteristic fragmentation patterns to identify unknowns or confirm the presence of suspected compounds, Information about molecular weight, Information about the isotopic abundance of elements, Temporally resolved chemical data. A few of the disadvantages of the method is that it often fails to distinguish between optical and geometrical isomers and the positions of substituent in o-, m- and p- positions in an aromatic ring. Also, its scope is limited in identifying hydrocarbons that produce similar fragmented ions.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The Druze strictly avoid iconography, but use five colors ("Five Limits" خمس حدود khams ḥudūd) as a religious symbol: green, red, yellow, blue, and white. The First limit (green), identified by Ismail at-Tamimi (d. 1030) in the Epistle of the Candle, represents either Hamza Ibn Ali or Jesus, symbolizing the "Universal Mind/Intelligence/Nous".
===== Post-market safety surveillance ===== After NDA approval, the sponsor must then review and report to the FDA every single patient adverse drug experience it learns of. They must report unexpected serious and fatal adverse drug events within 15 days, and other events on a quarterly basis. The FDA also receives directly adverse drug event reports through its MedWatch program. These reports are called "spontaneous reports" because reporting by consumers and health professionals is voluntary. While this remains the primary tool of post-market safety surveillance, FDA requirements for post-marketing risk management are increasing. As a condition of approval, a sponsor may be required to conduct additional clinical trials, called Phase IV trials. In some cases, the FDA requires risk management plans called Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (REMS) for some drugs that require actions to be taken to ensure that the drug is used safely. For example, thalidomide can cause birth defects, but has uses that outweigh the risks if men and women taking the drugs do not conceive a child; a REMS program for thalidomide mandates an auditable process to ensure that people taking the drug take action to avoid pregnancy; many opioid drugs have REMS programs to avoid addiction and diversion of drugs. The drug isotretinoin has a REMS program called iPLEDGE.
The existence of deuterium at a low but constant primordial fraction in all hydrogen is another one of the arguments in favor of the Big Bang over the Steady State theory of the Universe. The observed ratios of hydrogen to helium to deuterium in the universe are difficult to explain except with a Big Bang model. It is estimated that the abundances of deuterium have not evolved significantly since their production about 13.8 billion years ago. Measurements of Milky Way galactic deuterium from ultraviolet spectral analysis show a ratio of as much as 23 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms in undisturbed gas clouds, which is only 15% below the WMAP estimated primordial ratio of about 27 atoms per million from the Big Bang. This has been interpreted to mean that less deuterium has been destroyed in star formation in the Milky Way galaxy than expected, or perhaps deuterium has been replenished by a large in-fall of primordial hydrogen from outside the galaxy. In space a few hundred light years from the Sun, deuterium abundance is only 15 atoms per million, but this value is presumably influenced by differential adsorption of deuterium onto carbon dust grains in interstellar space. The abundance of deuterium in Jupiter's atmosphere has been directly measured by the Galileo space probe as 26 atoms per million hydrogen atoms. ISO-SWS observations find 22 atoms per million hydrogen atoms in Jupiter, and this abundance is thought to represent close to the primordial Solar System ratio.
=== Workplace safety === In 2023, an Oregon employee lost three fingers when the rotors of an ice cream machine pulled the towel she was using and her hand into the machine's blades. In response, the employees reportedly immediately quit their jobs. In a similar incident in 2007, also involving a rag and an ice cream machine, an employee lost one finger.
=== Sex === This is especially concerning considering the epidemiology of opioid affliction among white women, who are at a greater risk because they receive more prescription medications than men. According to the NIH (2018), "The opioid epidemic is increasingly young, white, and female" with 1.2 million women being diagnosed with an opioid use disorder compared to 0.9 million men in 2015.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Physical characteristics === Wound dressings should be stretchable to prevent tearing. Hai Lei et al. demonstrated that poor elasticity and hysteresis in naturally-derived protein-based hydrogels can be remedied by the addition of polyprotein cross-linkers. The flexibility of hydrogels can also be enhanced by incorporating microgels into the matrix. Hydrogel dressings mimic the fibrous nature of native ECM to maintain cell-to-cell communication at the wound bed for tissue regeneration. Self-healing hydrogels automatically and reversibly repair damage done due to mechanical and chemical stress. Self-healing mechanisms can involve "dynamic covalent bonding, non-covalent interactions", and mixed interactions. Covalent interactions involved in self-healing include Schiff base formation and disulfide exchange. Non-covalent interactions are generally less stable and make the hydrogel more sensitive to microenvironmental changes (e.g. pH, temperature). Some hydrogel dressings are self-healing due to mixed mechanisms such as host-guest and protein-ligand interactions. Hydrogel dressings are available in sheet, amorphous, impregnated, or sprayable forms. Sheet-form hydrogel dressings are non-adhesive against the wound and are effective in healing partial-thickness wounds. Amorphous hydrogels are more effective than sheet-form dressings in treatment of full-thickness wounds because they can conform to the shape of the wound bed and facilitate autolytic debridement. Impregnated hydrogel dressings are dry dressings (e.g. gauzes) saturated with an amorphous hydrogel.
This new framework allows the user to mix models and take advantages of the efficiency of Bayesian MCMC analysis when dealing with different type of data (e.g. protein, nucleotide, and morphological). It uses the Metropolis-Coupling MCMC by default. MrBayes 3.2 was released in 2012. This version allows the users to run multiple analyses in parallel. It also provides faster likelihood calculations and allow these calculations to be delegated to graphics processing unites (GPUs). Version 3.2 provides wider outputs options compatible with FigTree and other tree viewers.
Vegan diets are often higher in iron than lacto-ovo vegetarian diets, because dairy products contain very little iron and can displace iron-containing foods from the diet. Iron stores, as measured by serum ferritin, tend to be lower in vegetarians than in non-vegetarians, and some small studies have reported high rates of depleted iron stores in particular groups, such as female vegans. Lower ferritin within the normal range is not itself harmful, and the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics states that rates of iron-deficiency anemia among vegetarians are similar to those among non-vegetarians. Premenopausal women, pregnant women, infants, and adolescents have the highest requirements and are the groups for whom vegetarian diets most often warrant attention to iron intake or supplementation.
=== Animal welfare issues and lawsuit === Panera Bread has been the subject of increased scrutiny regarding its animal welfare policies, particularly its sourcing of pork, dairy, and seafood. According to Reuters, internal documents revealed that the company has loosened its ingredient standards, allowing the use of some antibiotics in pork and turkey and permitting animal byproducts in cattle and chicken feed. Drawing on that report, a 2026 lawsuit by a food safety and animal welfare nonprofit alleged that Panera had misled customers about its animal welfare practices. The lawsuit claimed that Panera had marketed itself for its humane practices, including sourcing chicken from suppliers that provide sufficient living space for livestock, but that none of the chickens in its supply chain came from suppliers who met the standard.
Once the heterologous protein has been fused with the bacterial cell surface protein, it is exposed to either an enzyme, a cell (expressing a target protein) or an antibody (usually fluorescently tagged), depending on the application of the experiment. The sample is then passed through a beam of light during FACS, in a very narrow stream of fluid so that only one cell can pass at a time, and the fluorescence emitted is detected. Information on the size of the cell can be obtained by the scattering of light and if binding of the heterologous protein with the target protein/cell has occurred, there will be more fluorescence emitted.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The main proposal is modulation of neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor, supported largely by animal experiments. Receptor-level targets have not been firmly established. Most reviews describe the mechanism as only partially characterized.
The compound is registered as a medicine in Russia, so clinical work has concentrated there. Trials elsewhere are few and generally small. This geographic concentration is a recognized limitation in evidence reviews.
Some fraction may reach the central nervous system through olfactory pathways, and this is often cited as the rationale for the nasal route. The size of that fraction in humans is not well quantified. Blood concentrations after nasal dosing are low, which complicates measurement.
It originated at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the 1980s. The work was carried out by a Russian research group that specialized in peptide neuropharmacology.