A practical reference on melanocortin signalling: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
This page was last updated on 2025-09-30 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its chain combines the first seven residues of corticotropin with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline extension, a modification intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The free peptide has a molecular mass near 813.9 daltons. It belongs to the class of ACTH-derived fragments studied for central nervous system activity rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. This structural relationship to a natural hormone fragment is the usual starting point for describing the compound in the literature.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C37H51N9O10S | Calculated for the free peptide |
| Molar mass | 813.9 g/mol | Anhydrous free base |
| Peptide class | Synthetic heptapeptide | ACTH(4-10) analogue |
| Parent fragment | ACTH(4-10) | Adrenocorticotropic hormone segment |
| Developmental origin | Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow | Work began in the 1980s |
Pharmacological accounts link semax to melanocortin signalling and to modulation of neurotrophic factor expression, particularly brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor. Much of this evidence comes from rodent studies using intranasal delivery, a route chosen because it allows peptides to reach the central nervous system with limited systemic exposure. Whether the same mechanisms operate in humans at comparable magnitude remains an open question. The precise receptor or receptors responsible for the reported behavioural and neuroprotective effects have not been conclusively identified.
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
Reported pharmacological work centers on neurotrophic signaling, including changes in BDNF and NGF expression in hippocampal tissue in animal models. Human data come largely from studies conducted in Russia, and how well those results generalize to other populations remains an open question. Regulatory status differs sharply by jurisdiction: Semax is a registered prescription medicine in Russia, while it holds no approved marketing status in the United States or the European Union. Outside such jurisdictions it is generally handled as a research chemical, which affects both documentation and quality expectations.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was developed as a fragment analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, modeled specifically on the ACTH(4-10) region. The first four residues reproduce that fragment, while a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide is appended at the C-terminus. Work on the compound originated in Russia, where it entered clinical use as an intranasal preparation. Its sequence places it among short regulatory peptides studied for effects on the central nervous system rather than on the adrenal axis.
Senate on 17 May 2005, Galloway said that he had "met Saddam Hussein exactly the same number of times as Donald Rumsfeld met him," but "The difference is Donald Rumsfeld met him to sell him guns ... I met him to try to bring about an end to sanctions, suffering and war". In the late 1990s, Galloway allegedly lost favour with Saddam Hussein after telling an interviewer that he supported the Iraqi people rather than their president. In 1999, he met with Uday Hussein, Saddam's son. On 6 May 2002, Galloway met with Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz in Baghdad on his second visit to Iraq that year, accompanied by the Labour peer Nicolas Rea and Labour MPs Kerry Pollard and Robert Wareing. He was also scheduled to address a conference of solidarity with the Iraqi people. His party ran into the far-right Governor of Carinthia Jörg Haider returning from a meeting with Foreign Minister Naji Sabri. Galloway did not take his companions' suggestion to copy a scene from Casablanca by singing La Marsellaise in front of Haider. On 8 August 2002, two days after the Iraqi invitation to resume talks in Baghdad was rejected by the United Nations Security Council and against the mounting threat of US invasion, Galloway was received for the second time by Saddam Hussein. Per Galloway's account, the meeting took place in a secret underground bunker near Baghdad.
=== Gene therapy === Gene therapy for hemoglobinopathies was first trialled in 2014 on a single patient with sickle cell disease (a fault in the beta globin gene), and followed by clinical trials in which a number of patients with either sickle cell or beta thalassemia were successfully treated. Gene therapies work by first harvesting the patient's HSCs, then using CRISPR gene editing to modify their DNA in the laboratory. In parallel with this, the person with thalassemia disease undergoes a myeloablation procedure (a form of chemotherapy) to destroy the remaining HSCs in their bone marrow. The laboratory treated cells are then infused back into the patient where they colonise the bone marrow and eventually commence production of healthy blood cells. There are fewer risks from this procedure than from HSCT, since the transplanted cells are autologous having originated from the patient herself/himself. There are two approved forms of gene therapy for beta thalassemia. Betibeglogene autotemcel, sold under the brand name Zynteglo, is a gene therapy for the treatment for beta thalassemia which adds a healthy beta-globin gene to the HSCs. It was approved for medical use in the United States in August 2022. The procedure involves collecting hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from the affected person's blood. In the laboratory, these HSCs then have a new gene for T87Q-globin (a modified beta-globin) introduced to them using a lentiviral vector.
== Early career == Starting in the 1970s Smith published peer-reviewed papers on several subjects, including mass spectrometry, ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry, ion-molecule reactions, molecular assemblies, and supercritical fluid solutions. This early work has led him to be considered an internationally recognized expert in mass spectrometry and separation techniques, and his research has led to advancements in instrumentation for the medical and environmental analysis fields, as well as biological research. In the medical field, Smith's work has produced benefits in the areas of drug testing, analysis of pharmaceuticals and medical diagnostics in the clinical arena. His most successful invention has been the combination of capillary electro-phoresis with mass spectrometry. By the end of the 1990s, Smith's achievements included the electrodynamic ion funnel and a micro-dialysis device for the rapid purification of samples analyzed using mass spectrometry. Other notable contributions have been in the fields of supercritical fluids and related reverse micelle phenomena. On August 22, 2000, Smith demonstrated and patented the electrodynamic ion funnel for highly efficient capture and focusing of ions in gases. He applied it for increasing the sensitivity of ESI-MS. His group has continued to refine and extend ion funnel technology, which is now widely applied in mass spectrometry and ion mobility instrumentation.
A harmful, or deleterious, mutation decreases the fitness of the organism. Many, but not all mutations in essential genes are harmful (if a mutation does not change the amino acid sequence in an essential protein, it is harmless in most cases). A beneficial, or advantageous mutation increases the fitness of the organism. Examples are mutations that lead to antibiotic resistance in bacteria (which are beneficial for bacteria but usually not for humans). A neutral mutation has no harmful or beneficial effect on the organism. Such mutations occur at a steady rate, forming the basis for the molecular clock. In the neutral theory of molecular evolution, neutral mutations provide genetic drift as the basis for most variation at the molecular level. In animals or plants, most mutations are neutral, given that the vast majority of their genomes is either non-coding or consists of repetitive sequences that have no obvious function ("junk DNA"). Synonymous mutations, that is mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence of a protein, rarely have fitness effects, but sometimes they do. For example, the sequence of an altered mRNA can lead to an altered RNA structure or stability which may affect protein synthesis. Large-scale quantitative mutagenesis screens, in which thousands of millions of mutations are tested, invariably find that a larger fraction of mutations has harmful effects but always returns a number of beneficial mutations as well. For instance, in a screen of all gene deletions in E.
Titration: Metrohm offers different titration systems, including potentiometric, thermometric, and Karl Fischer titrators. The Omnis software provides a modular and scalable framework for titration workflows, including options for integrated sample handling and digital data management. Ion chromatography (IC): Metrohm provides instruments for determining anions, cations, and organic substances at trace and ultra-trace levels, used in industries such as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and environmental analysis. Electrochemistry and Voltammetry: Metrohm supplies potentiostats, galvanostats, and accessories for electrochemical research and trace analysis of metals. Spectroscopy: The company's spectroscopy range includes instruments for near-infrared (NIR) and Raman spectroscopy, such as portable and laboratory Raman analyzers and NIR spectrometers. Process analytics: Metrohm offers modular systems for real-time online monitoring of industrial processes using titration, ion chromatography, and spectroscopy. Metrohm collaborates with external partners to develop fully automated laboratory robots for sample preparation and analysis. Metrohm also offers pH meters, conductivity meters, dosing systems, and software for data management and compliance.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Thyroid gland === The thyroid gland develops from two different clusterings of embryonic cells. One part is from the thickening of the pharyngeal floor, which serves as the precursor of the thyroxine (T4) producing follicular cells. The other part is from the caudal extensions of the fourth pharyngobranchial pouches which results in the parafollicular calcitonin-secreting cells. These two structures are apparent by 16 to 17 days of gestation. Around the 24th day of gestation, the foramen cecum, a thin, flask-like diverticulum of the median anlage develops. At approximately 24 to 32 days of gestation the median anlage develops into a bilobed structure. By 50 days of gestation, the medial and lateral anlage have fused together. At 12 weeks of gestation, the fetal thyroid is capable of storing iodine for the production of TRH, TSH, and free thyroid hormone. At 20 weeks, the fetus is able to implement feedback mechanisms for the production of thyroid hormones. During fetal development, T4 is the major thyroid hormone being produced while triiodothyronine (T3) and its inactive derivative, reverse T3, are not detected until the third trimester.
The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to letters F–J were either reclassified over time, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to vitamin B, which became a complex of vitamins. The Danish-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the coagulation of blood following wounding (from the Danish word Koagulation). At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through to J were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable. The table Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex. The missing numbered B vitamins were reclassified or determined not to be vitamins. For example, B9 is folic acid and five of the folates are in the range B11 through B16. Others, such as PABA (formerly B10), are biologically inactive, toxic, or with unclassifiable effects in humans, or not generally recognised as vitamins by science, such as the highest-numbered, which some naturopath practitioners call B21 and B22. There are also lettered B substances (e.g., Bm) listed at B vitamins that are not recognized as vitamins. There are other "D vitamins" now recognised as other substances, which some sources of the same type number up to D7. The controversial cancer treatment laetrile was at one point lettered as vitamin B17.
NADH-ferredoxin oxidoreductase reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-ferredoxin NADH-ferredoxin reductase NADH flavodoxin oxidoreductase NADH2-ferredoxin oxidoreductase Other enzymes in the family include:
== Production == To produce cheese, rennet or an edible acid is added to heated milk. This makes the milk coagulate or curdle (heat-acid coagulation), separating the milk solids (curds) from the liquid whey. Sweet whey is the byproduct of rennet-coagulated cheese, and acid whey (also called sour whey) is the byproduct of acid-coagulated cheese. Sweet whey has a pH greater than or equal to 5.6; acid whey has a pH less than or equal to 5.1. Whey can also be made by adding an acid such as cream of tartar to milk and warming it, letting the curds settle to the bottom.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Further reading == "Bernie Sanders Explains... Why Americans Are Furious at the Democrats: The Nation Interview [by John Nichols]", The Nation, vol. 321, no. 4 (November 2025), pp. 30–34. "[T]he [Democratic] party is saying, '[W]e can't support [Zohran Mamdani, running for New York City mayor] because he is saying what 75 percent of Democrats say about Israel: No more money for Netanyahu.' [p. 32.] [T]he money people decide who the candidates are... [p. 33.] A few years ago ... a poll [showed that] [a]lmost 60 percent of the people said [they] were better off 50 years ago. [p. 34.]" Chiasson, Dan (2026). Bernie for Burlington: The Rise of the People's Politician. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-59331-749-5. Rall, Ted (2016). Bernie. New York: Hollowbrook Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60980-698-9. Rice, Tom W. (1985). "Who Votes for a Socialist Mayor?: The Case of Burlington, Vermont". Polity. 17 (4): 795–806. doi:10.2307/3234575. ISSN 0032-3497. JSTOR 3234575. OCLC 5546248357. S2CID 153889856. Rosenfeld, Steven (1992). Making History in Vermont: The Election of a Socialist to Congress. Wakefield, NH: Hollowbrook Publishing. ISBN 978-0-89341-698-0. LCCN 91034055. OCLC 24468446. OL 1553980M. Soifer, Steven (1991). The Socialist Mayor: Bernard Sanders in Burlington, Vermont. Westport, CN: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-89789-219-3. LCCN 90048954. OCLC 22491683. OL 1887682M.
In chemical reaction engineering, "yield", "conversion" and "selectivity" are terms used to describe ratios of how much of a reactant has reacted—conversion, how much of a desired product was formed—yield, and how much desired product was formed in ratio to the undesired product—selectivity, represented as X, S, and Y. According to the Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering manual, yield refers to the amount of a specific product formed per mole of reactant consumed. In chemistry, mole is used to describe quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions. The Compendium of Chemical Terminology defined yield as the "ratio expressing the efficiency of a mass conversion process. The yield coefficient is defined as the amount of cell mass (kg) or product formed (kg,mol) related to the consumed substrate (carbon or nitrogen source or oxygen in kg or moles) or to the intracellular ATP production (moles)." In the section "Calculations of yields in the monitoring of reactions" in the 1996 4th edition of Vogel's Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry (1978), the authors write that, "theoretical yield in an organic reaction is the weight of product which would be obtained if the reaction has proceeded to completion according to the chemical equation. The yield is the weight of the pure product which is isolated from the reaction." In 'the 1996 edition of Vogel's Textbook, percentage yield is expressed as,
Bachem Holding AG is a Swiss biotechnology company specializing in the development and manufacture of peptides and complex organic molecules for use as active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). The company focuses on peptide-based therapeutics, including large-scale commercial production and process development for pharmaceutical applications. It was founded in 1971 and is a subsidiary of Ingro Finanz AG. The head office is in Bubendorf in the canton of Basel-Landschaft. Bachem operates production facilities in Vionnaz (Switzerland), Vista and Torrance (United States), and St Helens (United Kingdom), as well as a sales and distribution site in Tokyo. Bachem is one of the largest manufacturers of peptide-based APIs globally, supplying pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies with products used in both clinical development and commercial therapies. In recent years, the company has expanded its manufacturing capacity, including new large-scale production facilities in Switzerland and the United States. At the end of 2025, the company employed 2,511 people, reported revenue of CHF 695.1 million, and net income of CHF 148.8 million.
Between 2011 and 2014, Stick Men and Adrian Belew's Power Trio band (Belew plus drummer Tobias Ralph and bass player Julie Slick) joined forces to play and tour as The Crimson ProjeKCt, covering the music made during the '80s and '90s. Following the return of King Crimson in 2014, the Crimson ProjeKct name has been formally abandoned, but the Stick Men and the Power Trio have still performed together from time to time, usually under names like "Belew, Levin, Mastelotto and friends". During his solo career, including performances with the Power Trio, Adrian Belew has performed various versions of King Crimson songs. In March 2024, a new spin-off supergroup called Beat performing the 1980s King Crimson repertoire was announced: this featured former members Adrian Belew and Tony Levin along with guitarist Steve Vai and drummer Danny Carey of Tool. Fripp and Bruford had both declined offers to join, but gave their blessings to the group. Fripp also suggested the eventual project name, "Beat" (after the 1982 King Crimson album). The band went on to tour the United States during the latter half of 2024.
July 13, 1983: Law on the rights and obligations of civil servants. July 13, 1983: Law amending the Labor Code and the Penal Code concerning professional equality between women and men (Roudy Law): gender equality in the workplace. January 4, 1984: Law amending the Labor Code concerning parental education leave and part-time work for parents of young children. February 29, 1984: Decree creating, under the Minister Delegate to the Prime Minister for Women's Rights, a terminology commission responsible for studying the feminization of titles and functions, and more generally, vocabulary concerning women's activities. May 7, 1984: Law on acquiring French nationality through marriage. July 12, 1984: Bill concerning alimony. December 4, 1984: Decree on work permits issued to foreign workers. December 22, 1984: Law on the intervention of family benefits agencies for recovering unpaid alimony. January 4, 1985: Law on measures in favor of young families and large families. May 31, 1985: Decree on the responsibilities of the Minister for Women's Rights; this results in the ministry's autonomy. December 23, 1985: Law establishing equality between spouses in matrimonial regimes and between parents in managing the property of their minor children. January 6, 1986: Law adapting health and social legislation to the transfer of responsibilities in social and health assistance. March 11, 1986: Circular on the feminization of job titles, roles, ranks, or honors. May 2, 1986: Decree concerning the Delegate for Women's Affairs. December 29, 1986: Law relating to the family.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Semax is based on the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a seven-amino-acid segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The synthetic peptide retains the core sequence while removing regions associated with endocrine activity. This modification is intended to isolate effects on the nervous system.
It is registered for clinical use in Russia and a few other countries, typically as a nasal drop formulation. It does not hold approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency. Outside those markets it is generally handled as a research chemical.
The compound was developed in Moscow and the earliest studies were conducted there, so the primary literature is largely in Russian-language journals. Translation and indexing have been incomplete, which limits access for outside researchers. Independent groups have since published some work, but the total volume remains modest.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide derived from a fragment of corticotropin. It is used in Russia as a nasal preparation, while elsewhere it is studied as a research compound. It is not approved as a medicine in most countries.