Everything below concerns 鼻内给药. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-04-20. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
Semax 是人工设计的七肽，序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，骨架取自促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10)。它于二十世纪八十年代在苏联的分子遗传学研究机构内合成。设计目标是保留该片段与注意力和记忆相关的活性，同时剔除促皮质激素释放等内分泌作用。此后俄罗斯将其登记为药品并进入临床使用。
当时的短肽研究普遍关注能否穿越血脑屏障、在低剂量下产生中枢效应，Semax 属于这一路线。鼻内给药是其主要使用方式，俄语文献报道的适应症涵盖缺血性卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、认知功能减退以及视神经病变。这些研究大多发表在当地期刊上，样本规模与终点设置同西方试验惯例存在差异，国际同行对其临床证据的强度看法不一。
各国监管态度分化明显。俄罗斯按处方药管理，部分东欧国家留有使用记录；欧盟与美国未批准其作为药物上市，市面流通品通常标注为研究用化学品。身份差异意味着标示含量、纯度与无菌性缺少统一核查。体育领域还牵涉反兴奋剂名录，跨境携带则受目的地药品法规约束。
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular class | Synthetic heptapeptide | Analog of an ACTH fragment |
| Amino acid length | Seven residues | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro |
| Origin | Moscow, 1980s | Institute of Molecular Genetics |
| Approved regions | Russia and some neighboring states | Not cleared in Western markets |
| Common trade names | Multiple national brands | Sold as a nasal formulation |
Semax 是一种人工合成的七肽，氨基酸序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，单字母缩写记作 MEHFPGP。它被归类为促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10) 的结构类似物，但并不天然存在于生物体内。母体片段 ACTH(4-10) 的序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly，Semax 替换了中间两个残基，并在羧基端延长了 Pro-Gly-Pro 三肽。这种延长被普遍认为能提升分子对肽酶的耐受性。
该化合物于二十世纪八十年代在俄罗斯被开发，相关工作由俄罗斯科学院分子遗传学研究所的研究团队主导。开发目标并非复制 ACTH 的完整激素活性，而是寻找保留其神经作用方向、同时去除促肾上腺皮质激素释放效应的短肽片段。研究记录显示，这一方向促成了多个相关短肽的合成与筛选，而 Semax 是其中被研究最广泛的一个。当地文献常以 Семакс 这一名称指代它。
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
In the case of Annie Ee Yu Lian who was abused and murdered by her two friends, some Singaporeans were angered at the cruelty displayed by the offenders and felt that the sentences (which were between 14 and 16 years) for grievous hurt were too light, which prompted them to petition for harsher punishments; some even demanded for the death penalty to be imposed on the couple. In another case regarding the death of four-year-old Mohamad Daniel Mohamad Nasser due to child abuse perpetuated by his mother and her boyfriend, some Singaporeans felt that their sentences of ten to eleven years were too light and petitioned to the courts to sentence the couple to death. Younger generations of Singaporeans tend to have a more liberal approach towards drug use. The government, in response, has introduced education programmes on the dangers of drugs. There were cases of ex-drug convicts who also advocated against the use of drugs; some even agree that the death penalty was effective. A former trafficker once stated that in the past, he would always make sure the measurement of his delivered drugs were below the minimum amount to avoid capital punishment. A female prisoner and drug convict also spoke up about the death penalty while being interviewed in prison, where she was serving 26 years' jail since 2014. She agreed to the relevance and effect of the death penalty in stopping people from selling and taking drugs, as she knew how drug trafficking caused damage to families and inflict sufferings especially to the children of drug addicts.
=== Shape === Circulating inactivated platelets are biconvex discoid (lens-shaped) structures, 2–3 μm in greatest diameter. Activated platelets have cell membrane projections covering their surface. In a first approximation, the shape can be considered similar to oblate spheroids, with a semiaxis ratio of 2 to 8. This approximation can be used to model the hydrodynamic and optical properties of a population, as well as to restore the geometric parameters of individual measured platelets by flow cytometry. More accurate biophysical models of platelet surface morphology that model its shape from first principles make it possible to obtain a more realistic platelet geometry in a calm and activated state.
The croaking gourami (Trichopsis vittata) is a species of freshwater labyrinth fish of the gourami family Osphronemidae. It is native to still waters in Southeast Asia such as Thailand, Borneo and parts of Java island, but due to the aquarium trade, the fish has spread to other parts of Southeast Asia (like East Malaysia) and to other parts of the world. As the common name suggests, this species is capable of producing a "croaking" noise using its pectoral fins.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Most children with progeria appear normal at birth and during early infancy. Children with progeria usually develop the first symptoms during their first few months of life. The earliest symptoms may include a failure to thrive and a localized scleroderma-like skin condition. As a child ages past infancy, additional conditions become apparent, usually around 18–24 months. Limited growth, full-body alopecia (hair loss), and a distinctive appearance (a small face with a shallow, recessed jaw and a pinched nose) are all characteristics of progeria. Signs and symptoms of this progressive disease tend to become more marked as the child ages. Later, the condition causes wrinkled skin, kidney failure, loss of eyesight, and atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular problems. Scleroderma, a hardening and tightening of the skin on trunk and extremities of the body, is prevalent. People diagnosed with this disorder usually have small, fragile bodies, like those of older adults. The head is usually large relative to the body, with a narrow, wrinkled face and a beak nose. Prominent scalp veins are noticeable (made more obvious by alopecia), as well as prominent eyes. Musculoskeletal degeneration causes loss of body fat and muscle, stiff joints, hip dislocations, and other symptoms generally absent in the non-elderly population. Individuals usually retain typical mental and motor function.
A common example of backpressure is that caused by the exhaust system (consisting of the exhaust manifold, catalytic converter, muffler and connecting pipes) of an automotive four-stroke engine, which has a negative effect on engine efficiency, resulting in a decrease of power output that must be compensated by increasing fuel consumption. In a piston-ported two-stroke engine, however, the situation is more complicated, due to the need to prevent unburned fuel/air mixture from passing right through the cylinders into the exhaust. During the exhaust phase of the cycle, backpressure is even more undesirable than in a four-stroke engine, as there is less time available for exhaust and the lack of pumping action from the piston to force the exhaust out of the cylinder. However, since the exhaust port necessarily remains open for a time after scavenging is completed, unburned mixture can follow the exhaust out of the cylinder, wasting fuel and increasing pollution. This can only be prevented if the pressure at the exhaust port is greater than that in the cylinder. Since the timing of this process is determined mainly by exhaust system geometry, which is extremely difficult to make variable, correct timing and therefore optimum engine efficiency can typically only be achieved over a small part of the engine's range of operating speed.
== Gel Formulation Ingredients == Formulation of topical gels is determined by important factors such as appearance, odor, spreadability, extrudability, viscosity, pH, texture, microbial contamination potential and bioavailability. The components of the vehicle should serve to make the skin surface more penetrable to the drug. Characteristics of the gel such as consistency and viscosity are affected by formulation design. Consistency and viscosity affect the adhesion and retention property of the gel, and are important in ensuring the gel is retained at the site of application and effective delivery of the drug. The ingredients in topical gel formulation can be broadly categorized into four types: gelator, solvent, drug, and excipients.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Tropical bats tend to be homoeothermic (having a stable body temperature), while temperate and subtropical species which enter hibernation or torpor are more heterothermic (where body temperature can vary). Compared to other mammals, bats have a high thermal conductivity. They lose heat via the wings when they are spread, so resting bats wrap their wings around themselves to keep warm. Smaller bats generally have a higher metabolic rate than larger bats and so need to consume more food in order to maintain homoeothermy. Bats may avoid flying during the day to prevent overheating in the sun, since they would absorb sun radiation via their dark wing membranes. Bats may not be able to release heat if the ambient temperature is too high; they use saliva to cool themselves in extreme conditions. Among megabats, the flying fox Pteropus hypomelanus uses saliva and wing-fanning to cool itself while roosting during the hottest part of the day. Among microbats, the Yuma myotis (Myotis yumanensis), the Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis), and the pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus) cope with temperatures up to 45 °C (113 °F) by panting, salivating, and licking their fur to promote evaporative cooling; this is sufficient to release twice their metabolic heat production.
=== Neurotoxicity === Laboratory studies in rats indicate that ibogaine at high doses may cause degeneration of Purkinje cells in the cerebellum. This also occurred with the related drug harmaline. However, subsequent research found no evidence of this neurotoxicity with ibogaine in a primate. In limited human research, neuropathological examination revealed no evidence of neuronal degenerative changes in an adult female patient who had received four separate doses of ibogaine ranging between 10 and 30 mg/kg over a 15-month interval. A published series of fatalities associated with ibogaine ingestion also found no evidence for consistent neurotoxicity.
Lungs and the entire respiratory system The entire digestive system including the liver Metabolism Skin, directly and indirectly through the intestine Hematopoietic organs It was generally described as a food capable of regenerating a weakened, emaciated, impoverished organism in an unusually short time, allowing the body to achieve better resistance. It was used by the Asian (Mongolian) equestrian peoples often as the only source of food for long periods and during high physical exertion, without the body developing symptoms of deficiency. Under Genghis-chan, the Mongols established a large empire. They moved on their horses across the steppes, deserts, and mountains and covered large distances, and for long periods they lived mainly on the milk of their mares, both fresh and fermented (kumyss). Around 1850, various Russian doctors observed the habits of the shepherds of the Baskirian steppe. They reported that the Basic and Tatars spent the winter in very unfavorable environmental conditions, with temperatures down to minus 60 °C, severe winter storms, and very little or no food. Weakened nomads regained their strength unusually quickly as soon as they fed on mare's milk. Russian doctors observed in the 19th century that tuberculosis was practically non-existent among the steppe nomads. Doctors attributed it to fermented mare milk as the staple food of the steppe people. When this became known in Russia, a migration of tuberculosis patients from Russia to the steppes began. The treatment was initially "wild", without medical supervision.
=== Analysis of protein expression === Protein microarrays and high throughput (HT) mass spectrometry (MS) can provide a snapshot of the proteins present in a biological sample. The former approach faces similar problems as with microarrays targeted at mRNA, the latter involves the problem of matching large amounts of mass data against predicted masses from protein sequence databases, and the complicated statistical analysis of samples when multiple incomplete peptides from each protein are detected. Cellular protein localization in a tissue context can be achieved through affinity proteomics displayed as spatial data based on immunohistochemistry and tissue microarrays.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It originated at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the 1980s. The work was carried out by a Russian research group that specialized in peptide neuropharmacology.
It is registered as a medicine in Russia and has been used clinically there for decades. No regulatory agency in Western Europe or North America has approved it for any indication.
Semax corresponds to the four-to-ten fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Because it omits the first three residues, it lacks the adrenal-stimulating action of the full hormone.
不存在。它是依据 ACTH 的一段序列人工设计的分子，天然蛋白质中找不到与之完全相同的七肽。名称属于研究代号，而非天然物质名。